Succession of kingdoms located in the northern part of the Nile, within the boundaries of modern Egypt, lasting from about 3100 BCE until 30 BCE. While the kingdoms at times were ruled by kings of foreign origin, the culture and religion of Ancient Egypt represented mainly a continuation and development from the same sources.
The name used by the Egyptians themselves was Kemet, "Dark Land," referring to the dark and fertile soil along the Nile river.
As with modern Egypt, the Nile was the single source of water for Ancient Egypt, allowing abundant harvests 3 times a year. This provided for the necessary surplus for the development of trade, the establishment of urban centres, the emergence of powerful political leadership, of inventions and the production of crafts as well as advanced religious activities.
The natural framework of Ancient Egypt was quite similar to modern Egypt. People lived along the fertile river beds, but barrenness populated the deserts extending between the watered greenness. One difference between ancient and modern times is, however, major; the annual floodings, starting in July and lasting until September are no more. Today the level of water in the Nile is controlled by the Aswan High Dam.
The ancient floods represented both a challenge and a blessing. Houses, valuables and food had to be safely stored from the rising water. At the same time, the silt of the flood fertilized the fields, providing for rich crops and the wealth of the country.
As was true then, some people even lived in the desert, principally along the crescent of the Western oases (like Dakhla and Kharga) and Siwa.
PEOPLE
The number of inhabitants of Ancient Egypt ranged between 1.5 and 6 million depending on the period. Most of the inhabitants lived along the Nile, but there was also a substantial population in the Nile Delta. The desert population was small in comparison.
The population of Ancient Egypt had approximately the same ethnic characteristics as modern Egyptians, medium dark skin and soft, dark hair.
There have been several waves of immigrations and emigrations over the 2000 years since the decline of Ancient Egypt, not to mention the great influx of foreign peoples during the 3,000 years of the classical period. Ancient Egypt was an attractive place, and traders came from every country of northern Africa, the Middle East and many European countries as well. Many settled, and some left their trace on the Egyptian population from sexual relations with locals.
Egypt was also attractive to invading armies, soldiers of which often settled in the conquered land and married Egyptian women.
Slaves represented the third type of immigration. Slaves came from foreign lands, either as trading merchandise or as war prisoners. As both male and female slaves could marry and have children, they also left their mark on the Egyptian population.
ECONOMY
As in all ancient societies, agriculture was the main economic activity. The harvests in Egypt were richer than in most other countries at the time, allowing for a larger percentage of urban dwellers and diverse forms of production. Hence the cities, temples, the wealth of the state and the ability to equip armies for campaigns against countries producing products that Egypt had in short supply.
The main crops of Ancient Egypt were wheat and barley, as well as lettuce, beans, onions, figs, dates, grapes, melons and cucumbers. Flax was grown by many farmers, and then used for the production of linens.
There was no typical money system in Egypt. Products were bartered, and workers were paid in wheat, barley and, occasionally, in craft products like pottery, clothes etc. But barley could be defined as a type of money, since it was easy to use as payment. For example, if a peasant might pay with barley for a refined product, like a new garment, and then the seller would in his turn sell that barley to obtain other products.
Crafts were produced in small shops. Their wares included linen textiles, pottery, bricks, tools, glass, weapons, furniture, jewellery, perfume, rope, baskets, mats and writing material. Egypt also had a substantial output of mineral products, like limestone, sandstone, granite; copper, gold, tin and gems.
Trade was important to Egypt, and goods were exported to and imported from countries around the Mediterranean Sea, Aegean Sea and the Red Sea. Silver, iron, cedar logs and horses were imported from the Levant. Ivory, copper, cattle, leopard skins and spices were imported from Nubia in the south.
The main exports from Egypt were gold and other minerals, wheat, barley and papyrus sheets.
GOVERNMENT
Ancient Egypt was almost continuously ruled by kings, even if there were several changes in dynasties. The legitimacy of the king was substantiated through myths in which the institution of kingship was established by the gods: The king was defined as the son of Osiris, and often represented as Horus in the shape of a human being.
The position of the king was passed on, generally to the oldest son of the king's chief wife. In some cases, when the chief wife could not bear a son, the oldest daughter would claim the throne. At least 4 times Egypt did get a female ruler in this way.
Exercising power was in the hands of the viziers. By the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE, there were two viziers, one for the Delta area, and one for the southern parts of the Nile.
Ancient Egypt was divided into 42 nomes, or provinces. To each of these, the king appointed a nomarch as governor. The main responsibilities in each nome were to collect taxes and provide for security through the courts. Cases of major crimes were decided not by the courts, but by the king.
SOCIETY
The upper class of Ancient Egypt consisted of the large royal family, landowners, high government officials, priests, army officers and doctors.
The middle class was made up of merchants, manufacturers and craftsworkers.
The lower class consisted of unskilled labourers and peasants.
The fourth class was made up of slaves. Under given circumstances slaves could both achieve freedom, but even under slavery they enjoyed rights and could inherit land.
With the exception of the slaves, people in Egypt had class mobility, and they could move both up and down. By strategic marriage or education, it was possible to rise above more humble conditions.
The society was dominated by the male. The man was the head of the family, but women had extensive rights, and could own and inherit property and participate in trade. Women could even divorce their husbands by their own will.
CITIES AND VILLAGES
Ancient Egypt never developed any major cities. The reason was that the Nile valley constituted a continuous inhabitable area, in which few places had any advantages over others, whether in terms of communication or non-agricultural products. The cities that did emerge were wither the result of the need for effective administration, or the clustering of facilities around an important religious center.
The main urban places in Ancient Egypt throughout the major moments of its history, were Memphis and Thebes. Memphis' rise to importance came from its being the meeting point between the Nile valley and the Nile delta, with its many smaller rivers. Hence it was an effective market place which could work well in the control of taxation and internal security. Memphis evolved as the first capital of Egypt, to which Saqqara and Giza served as necropolises.
Thebes' rise to importance was slower than that of Memphis, and it appears that beyond the need to form an administrative and religious centre for southern Egypt, there were no distinct advantage to Thebes' region in comparison with other places. The region around Thebes, was, however, rich in agriculture and well-populated.
More short-lived as an important city was Akhetaten (now known as Tell el-Amarna), the planned city of Akhenaten.
LIFE STYLES
The most common food eaten among average Egyptians was bread made from wheat. Beer made from barley was the most popular beverage. The food of the Ancient Egyptians was fairly diverse, including fruits and vegetables, fish and poultry.
Rich Egyptians could enjoy beef, antelope, gazelle and many sorts of baked goods. They also drank wine, made from grapes or dates.
The most common garments were robes, made from linens. Headdresses were common, and rich Egyptians often used wigs. Common Egyptians did not use shoes, while rich Egyptians used sandals.
Ordinary houses were made from dried mud, with roofs made from palm tree trunks and palm leaves. Sizes of the houses varied immensely between the one-room huts of poor people and the multi-room mansions of the rich. Furniture was commonly used, and candles and lamps were employed to light the interior. Charcoal and wood was used for fuel. Clay ovens and fires were used for cooking.
LANGUAGE
The language of the Egyptians was related to Semitic, but it was also influenced by non-Semitic languages of North Africa.
The writing system used by the Egyptians was Hieroglyphic, or Demotic with Hieratic being employed for everyday use. Hieroglyphs were used for monuments and temples.
EDUCATION & SCIENCE
Education was not common in Ancient Egypt; only few attended schools. Most people's lives were so basic that what little knowledge was necessary could be passed on from the older to the younger in the local communities. Even among traders belonging to the middle class, it was customary for fathers to teach their sons.
The main subjects in the schools were reading and writing, as well as political skills that were central in the administration. Other important subjects were geography and mathematics. The education was based upon copying, whether it was literature, letters or business accounts.
Higher education was rare, and was generally transmitted through the process of work. While there were institutions like well-equipped libraries, Ancient Egypt had no form of universities.
The sciences of Ancient Egypt were limited to practical needs, for example, the development of a calendar consisting of 365 days in a year. The calendar was aligned with the appearance of the star Sirius over the eastern horizon. From this observation, the period of the flooding of the Nile could be predicted. Simple mathematics were also developed, helping to measure areas of land, volumes of products, as well as distances.
The study of the human body, in which field Egyptian doctors pioneered, was to a great degree related to protecting the corpse from disintegration after mummification. But doctors developed skills to take care of the living as well, and many anatomical functions were known to them.
CULTURE
The main area for cultural expression in Ancient Egypt was architecture, represented by burial complexes and temples. These structures were adorned with colourful reliefs and statues.
The most famous forms of Ancient Egyptian architecture were pyramids, used to house the bodies of deceased kings (and sometimes even queens) and everything he needed in the afterlife. There are still 35 pyramids standing in an area starting just south of modern Cairo and ending less than 100 km south near Fayoum. The largest pyramids are found near Giza, where that of Khufu reaches an height of about 140 metres. The pyramids belong to a relatively short period of Egyptian history, peaking in the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE.
The pyramid era would be overlapped and eventually followed by the temple and burial chamber era. Great temples would remain the supreme form of Egyptian architecture right up until the decline of Ancient Egypt.
The temples were designed according to a consistent pattern, typically with an entrance (pylon), open forecourt(s), roofed hall and the inner sanctuary. The width narrowed the further one got into the temple, and only priests were allowed in the sanctuary. The temples are spread out over all of Ancient Egypt, but the greatest examples are found in southern Egypt, peaking with the temples around modern Luxor.
Paintings of Ancient Egypt, as seen mainly in the temples, were bright and colourful. The paintings presented both everyday life of the Egyptians, as well as ideas of life after death.
The art of sculpture was highly developed in the times of the Ancient Egyptians. The largest sculptures were sphinxes, of which a small number still exists. The largest is the one in front of the Pyramids of Giza, dating back 4,500 years in time.
